Translated  to  English and provided with the sound by  Asya Lazar Ardova (piano)

 

Our essay is based on the World History of the Jewish people by the distinguished Jewish historian Semyon Dubnov, who tragically perished in the Riga ghetto in 1941 during the occupation of German fascists and their Latvian accomplices.

 

 

Listen to the soundtrack “ Verdi. Hebrews Chorus from Nabucco”  performed by Asya Ardova (piano) on the page  ardSOUND of ardisonata.net  

 

 

 

Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate

 

 

 

Our previous article Florence and John the Baptist — son of Israelrevealed interesting connections between three beliefs(paganism, Judaism, Christianity) in one of the Italian cities.

However, quite the other side of John the Baptist’s personality and activity seems most important for us. This is his connection with Hebraism. The narration about John the Baptist shows most clearly, he was not only Jew by origin, but also Judean by faith. All his doctrine is determined by the Hebraic Bible — the Old Testament. Perhaps, that zealous spirit of Biblical prophets had been never before embodied so amply as in John the Baptist. He accused evil and appealed to reason and conscience, but never did John the Baptist betray Judaism — his forefathers’ faith.

Therefore spiritual contact between Judeans, Christians and even representatives of other tenets could be set with the help of John the Baptist — most universal of the saints. And that contact was necessary indeed, for Christians and Jews were living side-by-side, very often carrying on mutual business, and it was already unbearable to consider themselves each other’s enemies. Florin was making for economic equality, but it was some spiritual equality, that should have been achieved. John the Baptist was the best hero for that unity.  

 Del Giordano le rive saluta / The Jordan River in Israel

 

 

Everything mentioned before is confirmed, while we observe the history of the Jewish people in Italy. Middle ages were dangerous and awful period, but in spite of discrimination and pogroms, Jewish people were kept on taking part in practical and cultural life of the countries, creating wonderful artifacts and whole cultural trends.

Meanwhile, beginning crusades signed organized persecution of everything Hebraic, very often supported by governments and the whole states. It was finished in the 14^th century, when Jews were banished subsequently from Spain (where they had developed economy science, art, true poetry), Portugal, France (where Tibbonides — the great Jewish dynasty of scientists and translators were living in Provence), from England and Germany. Jewish people had to escape from inquisition fires, tortures and forced christening.

The refuge was found in Italy.

Capitolian she-wolf in Siena.

 

 

Thus the distinguished scientist Isaac Abarbanel (1437–1509) was compelled to run from Spain and to find his shelter in Italy. True, Italy was not ceased with pogroms. Even Popes, who propagated hatred to Jews all over Europe, were unable to make Italians be hostile to Jews. Papal region, Naples and Sicilia were accessible for Jews, who could easily take part in economic affairs, being not only sellers and craftsmen, but also traders and manufacturers. Due to the Jews agriculture and silkworm breeding was developed in Italy.

Siena urban landscape

 

 

 

 

Those were the Jews to have solved the long-lasting problem of transport conveyance via the country, thus making for the growth of agriculture and commerce. Roads and tracks via Italy were not secure that time, but Jews were not fear of the way.

 

As for usury, the Jewish money-lenders were just modest pupils of their Italian colleagues.

 

Bank Monte dei Paschi in Siena

 

According to contemporaries’ evidences, Christian money-lenders treated their clients-coreligionists more inexorably, than Jewish money-lenders treated Christian bankrupts.

Returning to Florence, it’s worth to remember, that in 1430 the Jews were invited by the city authorities to live there, for the Jewish money-lenders could decrease the interest on loan to 20 %, instead of 33% — collected by the Christian money-lenders. Due to that circumstance the Jews in Italy could nearly avoid the unjust accusation of having pressed money out of Christians.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Egli dara pace all’anima mia

 

 

Listen to the soundtrack “ROSSI HEBREO, STRADELLA e SALMO 55 di DAVIDE” compiled and performed by Asya Lazar Ardova (piano) on the page ardSOUND  of ardisonata.net especially for the continuation of the historical serial.

Beside the Italian Jewish composer Salomone Rossi (1570–1630), this soundtrack is inspired by cantor Gershon Sirota (1874–1943, killed by the German fascists). 

 Gershon Sirota sings the 55^th David’s psalm in Hebrew to the music assigned to Alessandro Stradella (1644–1682). What concealed connections exist between them and the whole Russian music, having appeared evidently from the Hebrew–Italian Renaissance?

 

 

 

Favourable existence of Jews in Italy was making for the Italian culture to be developed impetuously. Padua, Salerno and other cities were glorious for wonderful scientists and physicians, who studied, practiced and lectured there. The galaxy of free thinkers appeared, sharing progressive views of the Jewish philosophers Maimonid and Isaac Abarbanel. Among them were Hillel of Verona and Jacob Anatoli.

 

Jewish poetry was also undergoing true flourishment. Philosopher and scientist Immanuel of Rome (1265-1330) was a wonderful secular poet in the Hebrew language. His lyrical poems are about love and vivial joy of life that he piously sung. Meanwhile, his satire is directed against ignorance and just faults peculiar to his contemporaries that he masterfully laughed at. Being Dante’s friend, Immanuel created the poem “Paradiso et dell’Inferno”, where he manifested tolerance to religions and the spirit of free unrestricted investigation.

 

There were refugees led by the great scientist Isaac Abarbanel that found shelter in Naples. Plentiful Jewish community was organized in Venice, the city located on the border of the Western and Eastern European cultures and most tightly connected with the East (Orient). 

Representatives of many countries were living there. Considerable Armenian community existed in there. As for the Jews in Venice, they evolved vast cultural religious activity, supported by book-printing zealously spread via Italy. The whole text of the Talmud was published for the first time exactly in Venice. It was in 1520, when this sacred collection of spiritual laws, legends and traditions was issued, having been created in the 4^th BC ­– 5^th AD.

 

The situation changed in the 16^th century. That was tragically, contradictory age, that brought cultural apex of the High Renaissance (Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Rafael, Titian) and simultaneous persecution of everything progressive in culture carried on by the Catholic Church. Although one of the reasons was Reformation and Protestantism (protestant theories), however, the Papacy’s policy of hounding was not stopped on just counter-Reformation, for the whole progressive culture of Renaissance experienced obscurantism and ferocious methods of the Popes. In 1559 the Index of forbidden books appeared. The services of inquisition raged their atrocity instigated by the Popes. The Jewish inhabitants could not avoid prosecution. Humiliative rules were valid again. Jews were permitted to stay only in stipulated places; they were to wear special clothes with fixed signs. Ghetto was a special place, the only, where Jews were allowed to have home. The word ghetto is of Italian origin itself. Only small business was permitted, and money-lenders were given the way to operate with little sums of money. Thousands of Hebrew books were burnt, others were censored mercilessly.

 

But in spite of all the Jewish Culture gained true flourishment in the 16^th century, for together with the Italian Jews it was supported by the Spanish refugees. Such original great philosophers as Jehudah de Modena and Joseph Delmedigo were significant figures of the 17^th century. Ladies (Deborah Ascarelli, Sarah Sullim) took part in the Jewish literature development, translating poems from Hebrew to Italian and writing their own lyrics. Already in the 18^th century there was widely known the talented writer and poet Moses Chaim Luzzato, who used Hebrew and could be called the true forerunner of the New Age ─ the epoch of Enlightment.

 

 

 

So, it may be concluded, that although the relations between Jews and Italian inhabitants were not constantly cloudless, there was noticed inevitable tendency of mutual cooperation and friendship on the benefit of culture and human progress and it was stronger, than obscurantism and just formal stupidity. We suppose, this progress of friendly mutual affairs was a good ground for the cult of John the Baptist to flourish, while the cult of John the Baptist was making for the strengthening of friendly contacts between both people ─ Jews and Italians.

 

   

             

vieni amato mio (lekha dodi) — kabbalat shabbat

 

 

Listen to the soundtrack “Shlomo Alkabetz, Benedetto Marcello — Kabbalat Shabbat” compiled and performed by Asya Lazar Ardova (piano) on the page ardSOUND  of ardisonata.net especially for the continuation of Lazar Ardov’s historical serial.

 

 

       Let's study the other aspect of the question. Among the European countries of the Mediterranean Sea Italy was turned to the East most closely. It was the start point for the ships, leaving for the holy Land of Israel, Palestine, the native land of Jews.

 

Jews had never forgotten about their native land, that was vividly expressed in the compositions of such great poets (living presumably in Spain) as Jehudah ben Halevy, Abraham ibn Ezra etc. Persecutions in Europe couldn't, but brought to life the idea of return to the country of ancestors. The interest to Palestine was evoked in many respects by the emergence of the mystical tenet, called the Kabbalah (translated from Hebrew as “traditional story”). Let's study its influence on the Jews, while they were leaving for Palestine.

          Berth in Venice

  

 

 

 

Persecution of Jews in Europe caused decay of unrestricted scientific research; meanwhile free intellectual spirit was brought up by Maimonides' progressive views. Mystic lore was spread among the Jews, searching for concealed purposes of the Holy Scripture and basing on feelings and imagination. During the14^th century the copies of the holy book Zohar (translated from Hebrew as “shine”) were widely spread. According to the legend Moses ben Nakhman (Ramban), the outstanding philosopher and already mystic in many respects, who transmigrated to Palestine in 1267 and then died in Haifa in 1270, discovered this manuscript before his death. The authorship of this manuscript was ascribed to the glorious teacher Simon ben Yokhai ― successor of the great philosopher Rabbi Akiva (40‒137), fellow-champion of Bar Kohba, leader of the revolt against the Romans (135‒138 AD). After the rebellion was suppressed Simon ben Yokhai found refuge inside the cave, escaping from his pursuers. Then he moved to Tiberias, and finally his tomb is located in Safed, being worshiped and visited by numerous pilgrims.

 

Moses ben Nakhman is one of those Jews, who already in the Middle Ages came to his historical Motherland and started living there.

 

The authenticity of the Zohar was disputed by many scientists from the time it had appeared. Even Moses de Leon (1250–1305), who made the set of the book, was supposed to have been created it. In this book Simon ben Yokhai is masked as the superficial saint, receiving the revelations of universal and spiritual mysteries from the angels and passing this secret lore to his disciples. The Zohar book took the position of the mystic holy scripture — the Bible of secret tenet. Religious Jewish groups were influenced by Kabbalah, so as the Western European Christians, especially scientists. During the Renaissance the Kabbalah was studied by many humanists and philosophers, among which was great Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494).

 

Refugees from Spain and Portugal, who mostly settled in the Osman Empire, have instilled Kabbalah to the East. Turkey was known for numerous Jewish communities. Many statesmen rose in the world. Among them Joseph (Giuseppe) Nasi (1524–1579) was the true hero. Having originated from Portugal and escaping from the persecution of the bloody Inquisition, he found shelter in Netherlands and then in Turkey for to confess his belief openly.

 

Here it's paradoxical to notice, that Netherlandish rebels, called “geuzen”(the word is formed from the French “geux” ― beggars), depicted crescent on their emblem with the inscription: “It's better to serve the Sultan, than the King!” ― meaning Philip the Second, King of Spain ― cruel oppressor of Netherlands, who embedded and propagated bloody Inquisition everywhere.

 

Joseph Nasi supervised foreign affairs at the court of Sultan Suleiman Kanuni the Magnificent (1520–1566) and his successor Selim the Second. Joseph Nasi did a lot for his tribesmen, protecting scientists and libraries. Being influential diplomat, Nasi defended Jews, who were hounded in the European countries. The protector of Joseph Nasi, Suleiman the Magnificent presented the ruins of Tiberias (Palestine) to him. Suleiman wished Tiberias to be reconstructed by Joseph, planning the Jews to arrive there as future inhabitants of that land. It was the most important deed for the Jews of the whole world to return to their native land, and that was one of the most significant steps on the way of repatriation. After Joseph Nasi's death (1579) his widow Reina stated the printing-house in Constantinople, where the books in Hebrew were issued. Reconstructed, revived Tiberias became one of the centres, where Jews did not only settle, but also did bring development to their culture.

 

During the 16^th century Jews were arriving to Israel, organizing more and more communities with the system of self-ruling and special institutions. Beside Tiberias numerous communities appeared in Jerusalem and Safed. The Safed communities were most of all renowned for their scientists-Talmudists.

 

Safed synagogue

 

 

Thus Rabbi Yakob Berab (1474–1546), the head of Safed community, tried to establish the Сouncil of Rabbis, reminding Sanhedrim. It was the first half of the 16^th century, but the project was not realized, because the Palestinian communities were scanty and poor.

 

The great sage Joseph ben Ephraim Caro (1488–1575) lived and worked in Safed. There he created “Shulkhan Arukh” (“The Table Laid”) — most complete rabbinical statute. The holy order of a sage was given to Caro by Yakob Berab (mentioned before), while contemporaries considered him to be divinely inspired. Caro was carried away by Kabbalah that was already elaborated via Palestine.

 

The holy book Zohar was already published and hence widely spread in Palestine that time. There appeared Moses Cardavaro and Elia Vidas, distinguished teachers of Kabbalah. The community of pious men was organized, uniting the hermits of true belief and inspiration. Its head was Isaak Luria Ashkenazi, called Ari (1534‒1572). The successors of Ari gathered near the tomb of Simon ben Yokhai (supposed author of the “Zohar”), committing their rites and singing hymns. Ari died of plague rather unexpectedly, that gave birth to the legend about him, as about the Forerunner from Joseph's family, taking priority of Messiah from David's family.

 

However, Khaim Vital (1543‒1620) became the leader of cabbalists after Ari. He wrote down and interpreted Ari's tenet and supplemented it with his own ideas. Ari and Vital created the so-called “practical Kabbalah”, endowing a sage with the ability of interference to the universal processes,   the skill of ruling over human minds, and even the ability to approach Messiah's coming.

 

Lion with the face of Ari in the Safed Synagogue of Ari Ashkenazi

 

 

These ideas inspired lots of people giving way to the messianic movement, which started in 1648, led by Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676), having been proclaimed the Messiah himself. He managed to attract plenty of adherents, thirsting for liberation to come soon and the Jewish state to be revived. The magic was awaited to come true in 1666. Even numerous Christians were enthralled by Sabbatai's prophecies.

 

However, the year of 1666 came, but no magic happened. Sabbatai's adherents were disappointed in their teacher and the movement was shattered. Sabbatai pretended to adopt Islam, but it only made him disgustable for people. He was exiled by the Turkish government to the city of Dulcigno and died in 1676. Sabbatai's advantageous movement failed, but that fact did not influence the Jews' position in Palestine. Rising communities continued their development, so as spiritual life.

 

The 18^th century signed the new wave of immigrants — successors of Hasidism from Russia and Poland. And the first immigrants arrived to Palestine in the end of the 19^th – the beginning of the 20^th centuries, for to restore it by means of working.

 

Meanwhile they came not to nothing, for this historical process may be compared with the pendulum oscillations:

 

- Firstly Jews migrated to Europe. Sometimes they were enforced to leave their dwellings, but more often they escaped from persecutions breaking out in the East that exact time.

 

- When persecutions raged out in Europe, the Jews migrated first to Italy and the Eastern European countries, and then — to Palestine (sometimes straight from Spain, sometimes through Italy), where the Jewish communities were organized by refugees.

 

Observing the role of Italy in this process, it's worth to notice, that the great number of communities selected John the Baptist – the Judean from Palestine – to be their protector. Italy (unlike Spain, France and many other European countries) was in word and in deed making for the Jews-refugees to find their shelter and to have just some temporary opportunity to live and to develop their culture. In this respect only Netherlands managed to surpass all the European countries in the 16^th ‒17^th centuries, when Jews were provided with security, religious liberty and other rights, for which the Jews in the other countries had been struggling.

 

Winged lion — symbol of Venice and its fleet

 

 

And now one more episode to the Italian theme — the event of 1945, that spontaneously fore-ran the State of Israel to be established in 1948. The British government set up the blockade of the Palestinian shore. Therefore hundreds of thousands of Jews were deprived of the opportunity to reach their historical native land, the land of forefathers. Meanwhile, Englishmen knew exactly, that the majority of Jews were recent prisoners of the German concentration camps and ghettos, having been deprived of shelter and livelihood. Their health was undermined.

However, there occurred to be some people in Italy, who helped the Jews. It went down in history that the Italian captain Ansaldo managed to cut the way through the English entanglements and the Jews sailing on his ship “Hannah Senesh” were delivered to the Palestinian city Naharia. The poets of Israel dedicated their feelings to this valorous Italian captain.